"The Conventions of a number of the States having, at the time of adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added, and as extending the ground of public confidence in the Government will best insure the beneficent ends of its institution"

. . .The Bill of Rights

George Mason Medallion over the door of the gallery of the House chamber, U.S. Capitol, Washington, D.C., Theodor Horydczak, photographer, 1950. Washington as It Was, 1923-1959

On December 15, 1791, the new United States of America adopted the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, confirming the fundamental rights of its citizens. The First Amendment guarantees freedom of religion, speech, and the press, and the rights of peaceful assembly and petition. Other amendments guarantee the rights of the people to form a "well-regulated militia," to keep and bear arms, the rights to private property, fair treatment for accused criminals, protection from unreasonable search and seizure, freedom from self-incrimination, a speedy and impartial jury trial, and representation by counsel.

The Bill of Rights draws influence and inspiration from the Magna Carta (1215), the English Bill of Rights (1689), and various later efforts in England and America to expand fundamental rights. George Mason's Virginia Declaration of Rights formed the basis of the amendments which comprise the bill.

Mason (1725-1792), a native of Fairfax County, Virginia, championed individual liberties throughout his life. In 1776, he drafted Virginia's state constitution, which incorporated his declaration asserting the doctrine of inalienable rights. As a one of the five most vocal members of the Constitutional Convention, Mason expressed great concern that assurances of individual liberties had not been incorporated into the Constitution, and, due to this concern and others, he elected not to sign the document.

The Bill of Rights would answer Mason's greatest concern and the concerns of many ratifying states. As a representative in the First Federal Congress, James Madison ushered seventeen amendments to the Constitution through Congress. The Senate passed twelve. By December 15, 1791, three-fourths of the states had ratified the ten amendments which constitute the Bill of Rights.

The application of the rights enumerated in the first ten amendments to the Constitution frequently fosters contention. For instance, the constitutionality of campaign contribution limits currently inspires debate. The United States Supreme Court is entrusted with the power to void acts of Congress which it finds to be in conflict with the Constitution or specifically with the Bill of Rights when the constitutionality of the acts arises in litigation. Thus, the amendments are frequently reinterpreted in fresh contexts and changing times.

Learn more about the Constitution and the Bill of Rights:

James Madison, Fourth President of the United States, Pendleton's, lithographer, from painting by Gilbert Stuart, circa 1828. Portraits of the Presidents and First Ladies, 1789-Present

• View the Special Presentation To Form a More Perfect Union in the collection Continental Congress and Constitutional Convention, 1774 -1789 to learn about the history of the founding of America.
• Browse the Top Treasures section of the exhibition American Treasures of the Library of Congress to find Jefferson's Draft of the Virginia Constitution and many other significant documents.
• Search on the term bill of rights in A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation, 1774-1873. This collection includes records of the proceedings of the United States' national legislative bodies.
• As early as 470 B.C. the Athenian dramatist Aeschylus held that free speech was essential to democracy. Search the Today in History Archive on the terms free speech to learn more about this right as guaranteed by the First Amendment. Search the Archive on the terms Bill of Rights, Constitution, slavery or civil rights for additional information.
• Visit the Web site of the Supreme Court of the United States. The court may determine the constitutionality of legislative acts which have reached the court system and thus wields much power in determining how the amendments included in the Bill of Rights are implemented and interpreted.
• The American Civil Liberties Union works within the court system to bolster the potency of the Bill of Rights. See the organization's feature In the Courts which highlights current Supreme Court cases which involve rights enumerated in the Bill of Rights.
• See the Bill of Rights in the Historical Documents or Thomas: U.S. Congress on the Internet. Also see current proposed amendments to the Constitution under the headings Legislation: Major Legislation-106th.
• The Constitution is an organic document that has been amended particularly as rights have been extended to groups of citizens over time. See Today in History features on the 14th amendment (1868) granting citizenship to "all persons born or naturalized in the United States," and the 19th amendment (1920) extending suffrage to women. Visit the Congressional Cemetery.