TRENDS AND ISSUES:
                      YOUTH APPRENTICESHIP

                        by Susan Imel, 1993

  ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education
         Center on Education and Training for Employment
                         1900 Kenny Road
                    Columbus, OH  43210-1090
                         (614) 292-4353


This TRENDS AND ISSUES ALERT was developed with funding from the
Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department
of Education, under Contract No. RR93002001.  Opinions expressed
do not necessarily reflect the position or policies of OERI or
the Department.  Alerts may be freely reproduced.


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     Spurred by changes in the economy and the educational 
environment, youth apprenticeship is emerging as one of the hot 
topics in education (Finegold 1993).  The need to prepare more 
workers with the skills and knowledge to sustain a high-wage 
economy has focused attention on youth apprenticeship as a policy
strategy for improving the school-to-work transition for many 
youth in the United States (ibid., Jobs for the Future 1993).  
Defined as "a learning program for young people, age 16 and 
older, that integrates on-the-job learning with school-based 
instruction, that bridges high school and postsecondary 
schooling, and that results in both academic credentials and 
certification of mastery of work skills," youth apprenticeship 
should not be confused with the registered apprenticeship program
that is regulated by federal and state governments (JFF 1993, 
n.p.).

     Proponents point to European youth training systems as the 
source of many of the components underlying youth apprenticeship,
such as (1) significant coordination between employers, schools, 
labor, and government; (2) integration of school- and work-based 
learning experiences; (3) broadly recognized certification of 
academic and occupational skill mastery; (4) a coherent system 
that serves a significant number of young people; and (5) 
high-skill, high-wage career routes that do not require a 
bachelor's degree (ibid.).  Although no single model of youth 
apprenticeship has surfaced, Jobs for the Future (ibid.) has 
identified the following key design elements of youth 
apprenticeship:

--Employers provide both paid work experience and structured 
     worksite learning.

--Schools integrate academic and vocational learning.

--School and workplace learning are coordinated and integrated.

--High school and postsecondary programs are articulated and last
     at least 2 years.

--Completers receive widely recognized credentials of both 
     academic and occupational skill mastery.

--Programs are governed by broad coalitions of institutional 
     partners.

     Despite its emergence as a promising strategy to accomplish 
many of the goals of the educational reform movement, the topic 
of youth apprenticeship is not without controversy.  Issues 
related to it include its name, the potential for conflict with 
union apprenticeship programs, the need for businesses and 
schools to make changes for it to succeed, and the type of 
leadership needed for establishing it as a national policy.  
Because its use leads to confusion with the registered 
apprenticeship program, the term youth apprenticeship is the 
source of much of the resistance to the movement.  Youth 
apprenticeship is applied to a range of school-to-work transition
programs that share only some of the features of the registered 
apprenticeship programs.

     Related to the terminology issue is the issue of potential 
conflicts with unions.  Some labor unions that have run their own
training programs for years see youth apprenticeship as a threat,
worrying that young, cheaper apprenticeships will cause wages to 
decline (Tifft 1992).  Also, in initiating youth apprenticeship 
programs state education agencies have approached the matter of 
union collaboration quite differently:  in Wisconsin, unions were
bypassed but in West Virginia union support was enlisted ("School
Chiefs Tout Apprenticeship Programs" 1992).

     Since youth apprenticeship does not represent "business as 
usual," the extent to which schools and businesses are willing to
make changes is another area of potential controversy.  To ensure
its success, schools will need to change their methods, 
schedules, and assumptions, and businesses will have to make 
larger investments in training.  Concern has also been expressed 
that youth apprenticeship could lead to tracking students at an 
early age (Tifft 1992).  Also at issue is who should take the 
leadership for developing youth apprenticeship as a national 
policy.  Should youth apprenticeship programs start as a 
government initiative or as a business initiative for which the 
government paves the way (Filipczak 1992)?

     At this juncture, youth apprenticeship shows promise of 
being a workable educational reform strategy for the United 
States, and policy makers are viewing it with keen interest.  
Additional information about youth apprenticeship programs, 
including many of its related issues, can be acquired by 
consulting the following resources.


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                         PRINT RESOURCES

Council of Chief State School Officers.  EUROPEAN LESSONS 
>From SCHOOL AND THE WORKPLACE.  Washington, DC:  Resource Center 
on Educational Equity, CCSSO, 1991.  (ED 346 286).
     Reports on a 1991 study tour to Germany, Denmark, and Sweden
     that investigated youth education and training policies,
     systems, methods of financing, and programs and makes
     recommendations for youth education and training in the
     United States.

Education Writers Association.  TRAINING FOR WORK:  WHAT THE U.S.
CAN LEARN FROM EUROPE.  Washington, DC:  EWA, 1990.  (ED 327
641).
     Describes a study of school-to-work transition programs for
     youth and retraining programs for adult workers in West
     Germany, Sweden, and England to identify European solutions
     to developing high-skill youth and adult workers.  Contains
     newspaper articles on European experience and U.S. failures
     and successes using techniques borrowed from these
     countries.

Filipczak, B.  "Apprenticeships from High School to High 
Skills."  TRAINING 29, no. 4 (April 1992):  23-29.
     Discusses the emergence of youth apprenticeships programs
     that offer relevant, work-based learning to noncollege-bound
     youth, preparing them for high-skill jobs and building
     generic employability skills.

Finegold, D.  MAKING APPRENTICESHIPS WORK.  RAND ISSUE PAPER NO.
1.  Santa Monica, CA:  RAND, March 1993.
     Outlines policy issues related to the implementation of
     youth apprenticeship programs in the United States.

Hallock, M., ed.  WORKER EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN OREGON:  
THE CHALLENGE FOR LABOR.  REPORT OF AFL-CIO COMMITTEE ON WORKER 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING ADOPTED BY THE 37TH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF 
THE OREGON AFL-CIO.  Eugene:  Labor Education and Research 
Center, University of Oregon, 1992.  (ED 353 369).
     Describes the steps taken by the Oregon AFL-CIO to support
     the adoption of a high-skill approach, including a carefully
     structured youth apprenticeship program.

Hamilton, S. F.; Hamilton, M. A.; and Wood, B. J.  CREATING 
APPRENTICESHIP OPPORTUNITIES FOR YOUTH.  Ithaca, NY:  Department 
of Human Development and Family Studies, Cornell University, 
September 1991.  (ED 342 956).
     Describes the Youth Apprenticeship Demonstration Project in
     Broome County, NY, which enrolls 25 high school juniors from
     5 school systems in newly created apprenticeships in
     manufacturing and engineering technology, administration and
     office technology, and health care.

Jobs for the Future.  LEARNING THAT WORKS:  A YOUTH 
APPRENTICESHIP BRIEFING BOOK.  Cambridge, MA:  JFF, May 1993.
     A set of briefing materials designed to provide a quick,
     current overview of youth apprenticeship in the United
     States, including what it is, where it is, design and
     implementation issues, and policy innovations.

National Alliance of Business.  REAL JOBS FOR REAL PEOPLE:  
AN EMPLOYER'S GUIDE TO YOUTH APPRENTICESHIP.  Washington, DC:  
NAB, 1992.  (ED 353 449).
     Provides a guide for employers interested in establishing a
     youth apprenticeship program that will serve its labor
     needs.  Addresses the internal support that a business must
     generate and gives tips on choosing an educational partner.

Roditi, H. F.  HOW MUCH DOES A YOUTH APPRENTICESHIP PROGRAM 
COST, AND WHO WILL PAY FOR IT?  West Somerville, MA:  Jobs for 
the Future, August 1991.  (ED 337 635).
     This working paper explores costs involved in funding
     programs that offer a structured transition from high school
     to high skills careers and offers three alternative models
     for effective and cost-efficient programs.

Rosenbaum, J. E., and others.  YOUTH APPRENTICESHIP IN 
AMERICA:  GUIDELINES FOR BUILDING AN EFFECTIVE SYSTEM.  
Washington, DC:  Commission on Work, Family and Citizenship, 
William T. Grant Foundation, 1992.
     Seven papers offer teachers and employers a menu of
     alternative approaches to apprenticeship and suggest the
     advantages and disadvantages of each.

"School Chiefs Tout Apprenticeship Programs."  VOCATIONAL 
TRAINING NEWS 23, no. 46, November 19, 1992, pp. 1, 3.
     Describes reactions of some chief state school officers to
     development of youth apprenticeship programs in their
     states.

Shenon, C.  UNION PERSPECTIVES ON NEW WORK-BASED YOUTH 
APPRENTICESHIP INITIATIVES.  Cambridge, MA:  Jobs for the Future,
January 1992.  (ED 341 845).
     Summarizes views of 14 labor officials regarding their
     attitudes toward the youth apprenticeship approach.

Tifft, S. E.  THE CHALLENGE:  TO ENHANCE THE COMPETITIVENESS OF
AMERICAN WORKERS THROUGH A SYSTEM OF YOUTH APPRENTICESHIPS 
THAT FORGES STRONGER LINKS BETWEEN ENTERPRISES AND SCHOOLS.  EQW 
ISSUES.  Philadelphia, PA:  National Center on the Educational 
Quality of the Workforce, October 1992.  (ED 349 473).
     Reviews implications of research for enterprises, schools,
     workers, and public policy in addressing the question of
     whether youth apprenticeships can work in the United States.

U.S. Congress.  OVERSIGHT HEARINGS ON SCHOOL-TO-WORK 
TRANSITION PROGRAMS.  HEARINGS BEFORE THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON 
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES OF THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND LABOR,
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, 102ND CONGRESS, SECOND SESSION (MAY 6 
AND JUNE 17, 1992).  Washington, DC:  House Committee on 
Education and Labor, 1992.  (ED 350 477).
     Records the oral and written testimony given at a
     congressional hearing on school-to-work transitions,
     focusing on four local programs that involved cooperation
     among industry, labor, schools, and the local community.

Vickers, M.  BUILDING A NATIONAL SYSTEM FOR SCHOOL-TO-WORK 
TRANSITION:  LESSONS FROM BRITAIN AND AUSTRALIA.  Cambridge, MA: 
Jobs for the Future, August, 1991.  (ED 337 636).
     By contrasting developments in Britain and Australia, this
     paper asks what role governments can play in shaping the
     provision of education and training and influencing the
     decisions young people make about school and work.


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                     RESOURCE ORGANIZATIONS

Council of Chief State School Officers, One Massachusetts 
Avenue, NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC 20001-1431 (202/408-5505).

ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational 
Education, Center on Education and Training for Employment, The 
Ohio State University, 1900 Kenny Road, Columbus, OH 43210-1090 
(614/292-4353; Internet:  ericacve@magnus.acs.ohio-state.edu.).

Jobs for the Future, 1815 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, 
MA 02140 (617/661-3411).

National Alliance of Business, 1201 New York Avenue, NW, 
Washington, DC 20005-3917 (202/289-2917).

U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Work-Based Learning, 200
Constitution Avenue, NW, Room N4649, Washington, DC 20210 
(202/523-0281).

Youthwire, An Electronic Bulletin Board for Employment and 
Training Practitioners, Center for Human Resources, Brandeis 
University, 60 Turner Street, P.O. Box 9110, Waltham, MA 
02254-9110 (617/736-3770; Internet: 
brandeis@tecnet.me.tufts.edu.).