Wilderness Survival Tools

Bushcraft Strategies and Tools You Will Need to Know to Be Safe When Backpacking or Camping

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Table of Contents

Introduction

Chapter One: Preparation and Equipment

Planning Your Trip to the Wild

Key Equipment You Must Have

Chapter Two: Water and Food

Water

Food

Chapter Three: Shelter

The Right Shelter

Emergency Shelter

Keeping Warm

Chapter Four: Navigation and Safety

Navigation

What to Do When You are Lost.

Dealing with Injury

Chapter Five: First Aid

First Aid Preparation

Best Practices & Common Mistakes

Conclusion

Introduction

Finding yourself in a survival situation in the wilderness is a great deal more likely than you might think. Few of us are ever in a situation where we are dropped into a location where we need to fend for ourselves or live off the land. If we are, we usually have special training, gear and equipment to help us cope and the skills to use them. For most people, the wild and lonely places of this world can be a source of immense beauty, solitude and physical challenge, and they attract millions of visitors to mountain ranges, ice caps, deserts, forests and wetlands around the world. However, uncertainty and the outdoors go hand in hand, and so it is very easy to find a simple recreational activity in the wild becoming a struggle for survival, almost in the blink of an eye.

Think about it. It could range from a lack of experience and preparation leading to something simple like a miscalculation on food rations on a long hike in the mountains, leaving you far from assistance with dwindling supplies. Imagine an accident such as a capsized boat on a kayaking trip, losing vital equipment at the bottom of a lake and leaving you soaked and cold on a wild shoreline. A simple slip on a trail leaving you injured and unable to traverse the miles left to go before you reached your planned shelter. How many of us carry the right supplies in our cars to cope if we ran out of gas on a lonely highway, far from a town and with few if any passers-by willing to help? And don’t forget the urban wilderness: mugged and stranded in an unfamiliar location, do you have the self-confidence and navigation skills to make it home? Could you cope?

Survival is a matter of confidence, of keeping one’s head in challenging circumstances and prioritizing your immediate needs whilst finding and taking what you need from your surroundings whilst you have the daylight left to work. Keeping warm, through building a fire and making a shelter is your first priority. Finding enough water, and if possible, food to keep you going is your next priority. Treating any injuries that got you in this predicament is a high priority whilst being mindful of the weather and other environmental factors which could make your situation worse is crucial. Finally, can you use your knowledge and skills to signal for help, or if no aid is likely, navigate your way out of danger?

Some do this for fun: some people teach courses in it and do it for a living, but for many, it is the downside of the essential nature of risk in the wilderness which leaves us without the essentials we brought with us or no sure way back home. So, as those in the military say, ‘failing to plan is planning to fail’ and the following book will give you an idea of the essentials of survival skills which will keep you safe if you have an unfortunate experience in the wild. No book can cover the same ground as real practical experience in situ, but we hope the sections below will keep your adventures from becoming misadventures.

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Chapter One: Preparation and Equipment

In this chapter, you will learn:

How to plan for a trip to the wild

Key equipment you need to keep you safe

If you know that you are going to be spending time in the wilderness, whether it is for a camping expedition or even just a short walk, you need to make sure that you are properly prepared for possible situations. Good preparation and the right equipment are the keys to surviving in the wild.

Planning Your Trip to the Wild

It does not matter how long you are going to be spending in the wild, you need to make sure that you are prepared. Even a 2-hour walk can turn into a dangerous situation if you are caught in bad weather with the wrong equipment or if you get lost or someone gets hurt. Planning your trip properly can help to minimize the problems that you will face and will help you to deal with them more efficiently if they do arise.

Local knowledge

Once you know where you are going to go make sure that you learn as much as possible about the area. What this will be depends, to a certain extent, on the type of wilderness you will be visiting. If you are going to be near the sea you should check tide tables, if you are going into the mountains check avalanche warnings. For all trips you should make sure that you have access to as detailed a map as possible and guidebooks if they are available. If possible you should speak with local park rangers or the local police/fire station to get up to the minute local knowledge.

Registering your trip

Always check weather reports before you leave and always register your trip with someone. In some locations, particularly National Parks you will be required to register your departure and expected time of return with the park office. If this is not the case, let a family member or friend know when you are going and when you expect to return. This means that if you are not back within a reasonable time frame someone is able to sound an alert and get rescue services searching for you.

If you are planning to be out for some days you should leave details of your planned route and projected camping spots so that you can be located if necessary. When planning your route the following timings are generally accurate for fit groups of walkers:

A normal group will walk at a speed of 3mph

When climbing add 30 minutes for every 1,000 ft ascent

When walking downhill add 10 minutes for every 1,000 ft descended on steep slopes and deduct 10 minutes for every 1,000 ft descended on gentle slopes.

Your route plan should schedule short breaks at appropriate points (after a difficult ascent for example) in order to allow for recovery and for a navigational check. Do not make the breaks too long or you will find it difficult to start walking again.

Group dynamics

If you are walking in a group you should make sure that all members have basic navigation skills and are aware of where they are at any time. This means that if the leader is injured there are other people in the group who are able to take over and plan a safe exit. A group should always aim to walk at the pace that is comfortable for the slowest member. If faster group members are having difficulties keeping to this pace or a slower person is falling behind consider giving them the map.

Key Equipment You Must Have

Day trips

This is a list of the key items of equipment you should have with you every time you go into the wild. Of course you can take more with you but this minimum list will be enough to help keep you safe.

Map and compass: a GPS is optional and a good idea if you have it but make sure that you have a traditional compass as back up and that all members of the party know how to use it.

Walking boots: if you are going out into the wild you must have the proper shoes. Trainers or fashion shoes will not be sturdy enough to support your ankles or cushion your feet from the impact of hard walking. Do not be tempted to take new boots out on a long walk, make sure that they are properly broken in before your trip otherwise you will end up suffering from blisters.

Socks: You should wear properly designed walking socks; these cushion your feet in the right places and will help reduce blisters.

Rucksack: this should be large enough to carry everything you need but not so large that you are uncomfortable. You will take a smaller sack on a day trip compared with a week in Yellowstone! Regardless of the length of your trip or the size of your rucksack you should ensure that it is properly fitted to your back (most are adjustable) and comes with a comfortable, padded hip support and chest straps.

Waterproof clothing: even if rain is not forecast on your trip you should make sure that you are able to keep dry if necessary.

Spare clothing: this is a must for even the shortest trips. If you get wet you will get cold, if you get cold you are at danger of hypothermia so it is important to have a spare, dry, change of clothes. Pack a hat and gloves as well to keep your extremities warm or your head shaded from the sun.

First aid kit: you don’t need to pack the whole ER supply closet but it makes sense to have a supply of sterile dressings, antiseptic wipes, bandages, sting relief cream etc., just in case.

Sun cream and insect repellent: the sun can be strong, even on cool and hazy days, so always protect your skin. When you walk you sweat and sweat attracts flies which are annoying, and other insects which may give dangerous or painful bites. Insect repellent helps to keep them away.

Water system: whether you choose to carry your water in bottles or in a hydration bladder you should make sure that you have plenty with you. Make sure that you also have some means of purifying water if you need to refill when you are out.

Cooking supplies: unless you are only going to be out for an hour or two you should take a small stove, cooking pan, plate, mug and camping ‘spork’ (spoon and fork combined) with some high energy quick food (instant noodles, hot chocolate, malt drinks etc). If you will not be out for long enough to need a stove remember to take a means to start a fire so that you can signal for help, if necessary.

Knife: you don’t need a full-on Crocodile Dundee blade but you should carry a sturdy blade that can be used to gut fish or rabbits if necessary.

Flashlight and batteries: even if you are not planning to be out after dark it is possible that you might be delayed or that fog or bad weather will render a flashlight useful. Always pack spare batteries; you don’t want to get your flashlight out only to find that it has gone dead just when you need it.

Survival sack or bivvy bag: if you are delayed or get lost you may need to keep yourself warm overnight. A survival sack is a high visibility bag that is designed to give you a little more insulation than your clothes alone and will keep you safe in an emergency. A bivvy bag is a step up, a cross between a survival sack and a small sleeping bag/tent.

Longer trips

If you are heading out into the wilderness for more than a day you will need to pack some extra equipment.

Tent: how big a tent you pack is up to you. You might decide to pack a single tent for your whole group and split the constituent parts when carrying it. Alternatively you might decide to each pack a small, light, one man tent.

Sleeping bag: sleeping bags are available in a bewildering array of weights and tog ratings (for warmth). These are generally described in shops as ‘seasons’ with a 1 season bag being suitable for summer only and a 4 season bag being suitable year round. Even in the height of summer it can get very cold in some areas, particularly in the mountains. In some areas weather can change without notice. You should aim for your bag to be comfortable in at least 10 degrees colder than the average night time ‘low’ temperature for the area you plan to be in. As a rule of thumb a 3 season bag should be fine for summer and late spring, early fall camping but a 4 season bag is advisable at all other times.

Sleeping mat: your sleeping mat insulates you from the cold of the ground which can leach the heat out of your system. It also helps to keep you comfortable. There are two types available, foam mats and inflatable mats. Generally speaking the inflatable mats, though more expensive, are lighter and better.

Toilet paper and spade: you get the idea!

Clothing

Your clothing is one of your most important safety items. It helps to protect you from the elements including both extreme heat and extreme cold. One of the most vital things, when surviving in the wild, is to maintain your core body temperature. The human body should be kept at a temperature between 96 and 102 Fahrenheit. Overheating and hypothermia are two of the most dangerous obstacles that can be faced by a person out in the wild.

The key to good clothing for the wild is to dress in (and pack) multiple layers, each layer traps a small amount of air and helps to insulate the body, a number of thin layers are more efficient than one thick one.

A good base layer will wick sweat away from your body preventing chafing and excessive cooling. In the winter you will need long johns and a long sleeved T. In the summer a vest top and shorts will be sufficient, although consider packing a longer set for the night time. Over the base layer you should wear a thicker fleece layer (in winter) or lighter top and trousers in the summer. Your final layer should be wind and waterproof. Many companies sell jackets that can have a fleece layer zipped into the waterproof shell making them easy and comfortable to wear. Where possible make sure that your middle and outer layer are made from breathable, wicking materials that will allow moisture to escape. A Gore-Tex jacket is ideal for this purpose.

You should never leave home without a hat, a warm hat in the winter and a sun hat in the summer. Gloves and a scarf (a lighter, cotton one in the summer) are also necessary to keep you warm. If you are planning on walking in the snow or during a wet period you should consider wearing gaiters over your boots, this will prevent water or snow from getting inside the boot.

When you are walking, even in the coldest weather, your body will sweat and you will get hot. If you find yourself getting warm try, at first, to loosen off elastics or vents at your neck, wrists and ankles to increase air flow. If this does not help cool you down remove one layer but place it in an accessible place in your pack so that you can put it on again if you need to. When you stop, make sure that you put it on again as you can get cold very quickly once you are no longer generating heat from exercise.

In the summer it can be tempting to walk in shorts. In some areas this can be very pleasant but in others you should think about wearing long pants, even on the warmest days, to protect from insect dangers. You will know if you are walking in such a place. Some clothing companies sell pants that can be transformed into shorts by zipping off at the knees; these can be a good compromise.

Chapter Two: Water and Food

In this chapter, you will learn:

The importance of safe drinking water

How to make sure that you have food that is safe and nutritious to eat

Water

The human body needs sufficient water more than almost anything else. Our bodies are made of up to 70% water and, if we become dehydrated our bodies stop working efficiently. Humans need to drink at least 8 glasses of water in a day, even when doing relatively little, so this is multiplied when out in the wild.

It is not, however, possible to just drink from any water source that you find. Water is, unfortunately, extremely likely to be infected with parasites or other disease causing organisms. You therefore have to be very careful when drinking water from a source of which you are not completely sure.

If you are out for the day you should have arranged to carry sufficient water to cover your needs and have a back-up purification system. If you are out for longer you will need to purify your water as and when you find it. Unless you know a water source is safe (a spring in a high mountain area) assume it is contaminated and run it through your purification system. Some small filter systems are available that can render even sewage safe to drink, alternatively it is possible to use tablets or chemicals such as potassium permanganate to render water safe. If in doubt you should always use your stove to boil the water for at least five minutes after filtering to ensure the water is safe to drink.

When selecting a source of water to purify look for the smallest, fastest running stream you can find as these are less likely to be contaminated than larger streams. Never drink from a lake or pond, from very sluggish streams or from places where livestock congregate.

If you are stuck without access to a water filter or means of boiling water you can collect rainwater (on a plastic sheet). If you cannot do this you can make your own, rudimentary filter by placing sand topped with gravel in the sleeve of a shirt and running water through this into a bottle. Note that this will not be as effective as a proper filter and you may need treatment for bowel problems when you get back home. It is, however, safer than drinking the water untreated.

Under no circumstances should you drink seawater unless you have a proper desalinating filter which will make it safe. If you are stuck without water near the sea you will have to evaporate the salt water from a shallow bowl and collect the condensate on a plastic sheet. This is extremely time-consuming, relies on the weather being warm and sunny and will generate only small volumes of water.

Food

If you are going to be out in the wild on a longer planned trip you should have sufficient food to last you. When packing for your trip make sure that you have sufficient dehydrated high-calorie foods to last you for each day of your trip and two more. In addition to these foods packets of soup, chocolate bars (Mars and Snickers are high in calories) and boiled sweets all pack a lot of calories. Remember that you will be burning more energy than normal when out in the wild so you will need to eat about 4,000 calories for every day in which you are walking 6-8 hours walking in the wild is no time to follow a low carb plan!

You will be able to buy specialist camping foods in a variety of flavors from your local camping store which can often be cooked in the packet. You can then supplement with fruit such as dates, apples and bread. Do not carry raw meat although you can carry eggs in a plastic bottle for up to 3 or 4 days. If you are hunting bring your kill to a safe area, close to your pick up point if possible, before butchering. If you are in areas in which Bears are common make sure that your food store is elevated off the ground and that your storage area is 150 ft from your tent with your cooking zone 150ft from them both in a triangular shape.

Whether you are going out for a few hours or a few days you should aim to carry some supplemental survival rations with you. If you find yourself stuck, for whatever reason, without any food whatsoever it can be tempting to think about trapping some smaller animals for food. A human being can last an astonishing time without food so unless you know how to prepare traps safely and gut and skin an animal to render it safe to eat you would be best avoiding this. If there are streams nearby you could try to get some fish either by making a rudimentary hook and line to leave in the water or by weaving a fish trap out of wood/grass. If you have done your pre-trip preparation properly you will know what berries and plants are safe to eat in the area.

Chapter Three: Shelter

In this chapter, you will learn:

How to choose the shelter that is right for you

How to make an emergency shelter

Keeping warm

After water shelter is your number one priority when you are out in the wilderness.

If you are planning a trip to the wild you will probably be bringing some form of shelter with you. The first section of this chapter will talk you through the potential shelter options. If you are stuck out in the wild by accident you will need to be able to make your own shelter and the second part of the chapter will talk you through some of the skills you need.

The Right Shelter

Built shelters

In some parks and other wilderness locations there are lodges or huts that are available for use by walkers. These will often provide nothing more than sleeping platforms so you will still need to bring your own sleeping bags but they can be an alternative to using your tent and a handy place to dry out after a few very wet days! If the weather is fine, however, your tent will probably be cleaner and more comfortable.

Unless your situation is desperate you should not sleep in barns or other buildings that are designed for or are being used by animals. The droppings mean that they will have a huge potential for diseases and they are likely to be full of ticks and other nasties.

Camp Sites and Wild Camping

Some farmers will have a designated section of their land on which they allow people to camp. Many national parks will also have central campsites with pitches for tents and central washing facilities etc. These often command a small fee (steeper the better the facilities provided) and can be very busy. They are useful places to stay when you are starting or ending a longer trip as they are generally close to or have provision stores on site.

Once you are away from campsites, however, you will be finding your own camping spot and ‘camping wild’. If you are in a national park there may be guidelines of areas in which camping is permitted or not permitted. If you are not in a designated park area you may need to ask the landowner’s permission prior to camping, but most do not mind.

Emergency Shelter

If you find yourself in need of emergency shelter during a planned trip you should have your tent to keep you warm or, if that cannot be pitched, your bivvy bag or survival sack (see previous chapter). This should be enough to keep you warm while help comes. If, however, you find yourself needing to survive in the wild without any equipment you will need to find or make your own shelter.

Natural shelters

Wherever possible you should seek to make use of the natural shelter that is available to you. If there are caves in the area that are warm, dry and free of animal signs you can shelter there. Alternatively groups of boulders often have clefts in which you can keep dry or cover relatively easily and thick bushes or undergrowth can also provide shelter. If no natural shelters are available you will need to build your own.

Natural building materials

Foliage: tree leaves and branches make excellent building materials and are available in many different wilderness locations.

Turf: if you are stuck in a relatively open area you can cut turf (with a sharp stone if you do not have a knife on you) to make a warm and cozy shelter that is relatively weather tight.

Rocks: in areas such as boulder fields you may find that these are the only building materials available to you. You can sometimes use them as a windbreak.

Snow: can be used to make a shelter if it is cold enough and if there is enough of it.

Tarps: if you are carrying one with you or if you find an abandoned piece of tarpaulin or plastic sheeting these can be ideal to help construct a shelter.

The right location

Try to find somewhere that is safe from risk of floods (do not camp too near a river) or avalanches. In a forest take care in areas where trees have blown over, it might indicate that the soil is too shallow to support larger trees and that they are in danger of falling over in high winds. That said, a fallen tree can be a useful source of shelter in and of itself so there is a balancing act to be done.

Look also for areas that are reasonably close to water so that you do not have to walk too far to get a drink and also have a good supply of firewood and construction materials.

Building your shelter

There are a number of different shelter options that are available to you in an emergency.

Lean-to: A lean-to is a simple frame of material (stripped tree branches are good for this) laid against a supporting structure and covered with another material. The covering material will depend on what is available to you, tree branches, palm leaves, turf etc. You can cover this with mud which should harden in the sun to keep the cover in place. Do not be tempted to build the shelter too high, it should be just high enough for you to crawl in underneath and make sure that the lean-to slopes into the prevailing wind.

Tree shelter: if you have the tools to hand (or a very sharp stone) that will allow you to cut a tree you can cut away at just enough of the trunk t bend the tree over to the ground (leave the remaining part of the trunk attached so it acts as a pivot). Cut the branches between the sloping trunk and the ground away to create a small shelter and then weave these into the sides to help thicken up the protection they offer from the elements.

If you are in a snowy area you can use a tree to make an even simpler shelter. Snow will often not fall directly around a tree trunk but create a small hollow which you can extend and shore up with fallen branches.

Snow shelters: if you find yourself marooned in snowy situations you may be able to build a snow shelter. If the snow can be compacted you can use it for the roof as well as for the base. If the snow is softer you will need to use branches or other materials to build a roof although you can then pile snow on top for insulation.

Keeping Warm

If you have to build a survival shelter but have your sleeping bag and survival sack/bivvy bag you will be able to keep quite cozy. Even if you just have a survival sack you will be able to keep yourself warm by stuffing leaves inside to create insulation.

If you can you should aim to build a fire. This will not only give you warmth and light it will help keep away wild animals and signaling rescuers. Be very careful to ensure that you ventilate your shelter if you are keeping the fire in there as a buildup of carbon monoxide could prove fatal.

Collecting firewood

Your firewood should be dry in order to get it to light. You will need to collect moss and tiny pieces of wood to act as tinder to get the fire going, twigs to feed the fire and then larger sticks and logs to feed it as it grows. When you build a fire, make sure that it is in a cleared area, on and surrounded with stones so that the chances of it spreading are limited as much as possible. If there is a wind try to shelter the fire from it as much as possible. Have some loose earth and water nearby so that you can put out your fire if it does start to get out of control.

Rekindling a fire

If you think your fire has gone out you may be able to relight it. Use a very dry twig to stir the embers and then push some equally dry tinder into them, if it starts to smoke fan the tinder very gently to encourage the fire to relight and build it up very gently from there.

Getting a flame

If you have matches and/or a lighter with you, then you are in luck – you should be able to produce a flame sufficient to set fire to your tinder. If you are not lucky enough to have one on you there are several other methods you can use.

If you are in an area with flint rocks you can produce sparks by rubbing it with a steel blade. If you do this over your tinder some sparks will fall on it and you can coax your fire to life. If you are in a sunny climate and have access to glasses for long sight (convex lenses) you can use these to catch the sun and light your tinder. Finally, you can, if desperate, use two pieces of dry wood to create enough friction to start a fire. This takes a long time!

Chapter Four: Navigation and Safety

In this chapter, you will learn:

The basics of navigation

How to deal with getting lost

Dealing with injuries

Navigation

When navigating in the wild your two key tools will be a good quality map and a compass. While GPS systems are very accurate and useful batteries can fail and satellites go out of range so it is vital that you know how to manage without them.

A compass will have a needle that will always point due north. This is set in a movable housing which is divided up into 360 degrees. Your map will ideally show contour lines so you know how steep or gentle the terrain you are going to walk through will be and highlight key landmarks.

Orientating your map

Look for the most obvious landmark that you can see in your local vicinity. Find the landmark on the map and then, standing with the landmark in front of you, move the map around until the landmark on the map is aligned to the landmark. You now have the map orientated to your local surroundings. If you cannot see any identifying landmarks you can also orientate your map by using your compass, put the flat edge of your compass against a north/south gridline in the map then turn the map and compass around until the needle of the compass is aligned with the north/south line of the map.

Using the compass and map together

You know where you are on the map and you know where you want to go. Now that you know these two key things you can use the map and the compass together to get yourself to your destination. Try to break up your route into short, easy to identify stages that end at landmarks that show up on the map. It will be easier to navigate in 10 1 mile stages than one 10 mile stretch.

Place the straight edge of your compass on the map connecting where you are to your next staging point by a straight line. There will be a straight arrow on the clear plate of your compass and this should be pointing in the direction of the map that you want to travel. Turn the compass bevel until the straight lines on the base of the bevel are aligned against the north/south lines of the map. One of the numbers on the edge of the dial (0-360) will be aligned against the straight arrow on the clear plate. When you are walking all you need to do is keep the north pointer aligned against the etched ‘north’ arrow in the compass bevel base and walk in the direction indicated by the arrow in the clear plate. When you reach your destination you repeat the process for the next stage.

Operating without a compass

It is easy to think that you can manage to navigate with just a map but this can be a recipe for disaster if you get yourself disorientated and cannot find a visible landmark to help you orientate your map.

If the weather is sunny and you are on relatively flat terrain you can use a stick and the sun to help you find North. The stick will need to be about 3ft high so that the shadow is sufficiently defined to track. Place the stick upright in the ground and use a stone to mark where the end of the shadow lies. 20 minutes later use another stone to mark where the shadow has moved to a line between these two stones will track East to West. Draw a line at right angles to give you a bearing North/South. If you stand with your right foot on the first stone and your left on the second you will know that you are facing North.

At night you can find north by locating the Pole Star, this is located, as the name suggests, directly over the North Pole. To find the star first look for the Big Dipper, which is one of the most prominent constellations in the Northern Hemisphere. Look for the two stars that make up the section of the ‘pan’ the furthest away from the ‘handle’. These point directly to the North Star which is about six times the distance between the two pointer stars.

What to Do When You are Lost.

The instructions in the previous section are, of course, only useful if you have a map and compass and a general idea of where you are. If you find yourself in an emergency situation when you have those aids with you, you will be much better placed to help yourself find a way out of your predicament. Usually, if you find yourself lost with a map and a compass it is because the weather has turned bad, your best bet is to pitch your tent or set up your bivvy bag, wait for the weather to clear and then either navigate your way out of the situation or, if someone is injured and you think help may be coming, stay put but signal for help.

Much more serious, however, is if you find yourself lost without any survival tools whatsoever (your car broke down, your light aircraft crashed etc). You will need to know how to look after yourself.

Manage your fear

If you find that you are lost then you will probably start to feel very scared. This is completely normal, as anyone would be frightened in such a situation. The important thing is not to panic. Assess the situation in which you find yourself and try to work out what resources you have to help you deal with it. Allow yourself to admit that you are scared, if there are others in the situation with you be completely honest about the hurdles that you face then, once you have done this start to deal with it. Your priorities are assessing and dealing with any injuries, finding clean water, shelter and warmth and signaling to rescuers if relevant. Dealing with these priorities will make you, and everyone else in your group (if you are not alone) feel more confident.

Dealing with Injury

While the next chapter deals with the basics of first aid in wilderness situations this section talks about the practicalities of finding help and evacuating a casualty.

Finding Help

If you are on your own, and injured, you may have no option but to stay put and wait for rescue. If you can build an SOS signal from rocks or tree branches this will help to signal nearby aircraft, a flashlight can also be used to summon aid. If you have a whistle, try to blow it at regular intervals to alert search parties. If you do not, try to call out with your voice instead.

If you are in a large enough group you may be able to send some people to search for help. A group of three is thought to be the ideal minimum size, one to be injured, one to stay with him and one to go for help. If you are in a larger group two or more people can go for help. If there are just two of you the uninjured party should aim to stay with the casualty unless there is no other option. If an injured person has to be left alone they should be made as comfortable as possible and given the means to attract attention from rescuing parties.

The group members who go for help should only leave if they are confident that they have time to reach safety in daylight hours, it will do no one any good to fragment the group and have them become lost in the dark. They should also be able to give a good description of the location in which the injured party and his companions can be found together with full details of any injury.

Chapter Five: First Aid

In this chapter, you will learn:

The basics of first aid for wilderness survival

We have all heard stories of people trapped in the wilderness who have performed amazing feats of first aid such as cutting off their own arms or feet to help get themselves to safety. We hope that you never find yourself in a situation where you need to do that but it does make sense to be prepared and know a little bit about the problems you might need to triage when out in the wilderness.

First Aid Preparation

It makes sense for all people to have a valid first aid qualification and renew this every two years. It comes in useful in the most diverse of situations. The reality is, however, that most people do not keep such qualifications up to date, if they have them at all. If you are planning to spend time in the wilderness it makes sense for you to prepare by registering with a specialist first aid course and keeping your qualification current.

You should also aim to carry a first aid kit and instruction manual with you when you go out to the wild. As a minimum you should aim to have waterproof and blister plasters in a variety of sizes, suture strips to close small wounds, sterile wipes and dressings, burn dressings, large wound dressing, rehydration sachets, analgesic tablets, antihistamine cream, scissors a triangular bandage and an instruction book. You should also consider carrying a small barrier mask in case you have to give mouth to mouth but, in a pinch, any piece of fabric will help give some protection against diseases.

Assessing a casualty

If you come across someone who is injured you will need to assess the scene and work out if it is safe to render aid. If doing so would potentially cause you to be injured you should not attempt to approach the casualty. If it is safe to approach you can assess the injuries so that you can work out a treatment plan. If more than one person is injured you should render aid to the person who is most severely injured before moving on to the others.

ABC

When you come across someone in trouble you should always assess their ABC, their Airway, their Breathing and their Circulation.

If someone is awake and talking you can be sure that their ABC is mostly secure. If, however, someone is unconscious you will need to establish whether or not they are breathing. Placing your hands on their forehead and under their neck tilt the head very gently backwards then remove the hand from under the neck and push the chin up and out to open the airway. If they are still not breathing check the mouth for an obstruction by sweeping two fingers through the mouth. This may be enough to start the person breathing again.

NB if someone has fallen or injured their back be very aware of potential neck injuries, if necessary secure their head to prevent further damage to their neck.

If securing the airway does not lead to the person breathing spontaneously you will need to help them breathe by pinching the nose with a hand, take a deep breath, cover their mouth with your own and breathe gently into their body. As long as their heart is beating you should give assistance breaths about 16 times a minute until they start breathing on their own.

Once you have given the first two rescue breaths you should check for a pulse. There are two main places where it is possible to check for a pulse, the first is in the hollow of the neck, the second is on the underside of the wrist at the base of the big thumb. Use two fingers to check for a pulse and never use your thumb, there is a blood vessel close to the surface of the tip of your thumb and it might be possible for you to feel your own pulse and mistake it for circulation in the other person. If there is no heartbeat you can help the person’s system pump blood by compressing their heart. You must be absolutely sure that there is no heartbeat before doing this, if in doubt get a second person to check for you.

To give chest compressions locate the base of the breastbone, lay three fingers on the chest starting at the base of the breastbone, this will then give you the right location. Lay the heel of your less dominant hand on the position which should be roughly in line with the nipples. Place your dominant hand over the top of your first hand and lock your elbows. Use your weight to push down on the chest for about 2 inches then release the chest.

CPR

When breathing for and helping another person’s body pump blood you are performing what is known as CPR. The advised ratios of breaths to pumps depends on the country you are in and the number of people who are available to help. In some countries they no longer advise rescuers to give compressions. We have summarized the most common advice below but, if you have been told something different on a CPR course please follow the method you have been advised to use.

Check airway and breathing, if neither is present give two deep rescue breaths, make sure that the other person’s chest rises and falls as you give them.

Check for a pulse. If no pulse is present thump the chest hard your fist and check for a pulse again. If no pulse is present give 15 chest compressions.

Continue to give two breaths followed by 15 chest compressions. Check the pulse after every breath/compression cycle.

If you find a pulse stop giving chest compressions but continue rescue breaths until the person is breathing on his own.

If there is a second person available to assist you one of you should breathe and the other should give chest compressions. You can swap around from time to time. As there are two people you can work to a different ratio, 1 breath and 5 compressions without a break between them. Check for a pulse every minute.

It is important to remember that if someone has no pulse and is not breathing they are very ill indeed. It is unlikely that you will be able to bring them back to life but it is important that you try. You should not feel bad if you cannot help them, you have done the best you can. Sometimes rendering CPR is important, not just for the casualty but for any friends and family who have witnessed the accident. It can be important for them to know that rescuers did everything they could. Ideally you should continue to provide CPR until a trained professional arrives but if you are physically unable to continue no one would blame you for stopping.

Recovery

It is unlikely but if someone to whom you are rendering CPR shows signs of recovery you will need to help them. You will know that they are getting better because they will look less pale and their breathing and pulse will become stronger. They may even make some weak sounds or try to move a little. If this is the case you can put them in the recovery position.

The recovery position is also useful if you find a person who is unconscious but has a stable pulse and breathing. It enables the airway to be kept clear of obstructions and allows vomit and other bodily fluids to drain away without choking the person.

Starting with the person laid on their back kneel next to them

Place the hand furthest away from you on the person’s shoulder.

Taking the leg from the same side as the arm pull the knee up until the foot is resting on the floor.

Gently roll the person towards you taking care not to jar the neck.

Place the hand from the shoulder under their face, pull the other arm up so that it rests on the ground around the top of their head.

Use the knee that was pulled up to prop the body.

Bleeding

Loss of blood can be very serious and you should therefore try to stem blood flow as soon as possible. Unless you know what you are doing you should not aim to use a tourniquet as they can cause more damage than they resolve.

Place a wound dressing (a sterile dressing if you have but clothing if you do not) on top of the wound and apply gentle but firm pressure, if the wound bleeds through the dressing apply up to two more on top of it. If possible try to raise the injury above the level of the heart, this will reduce blood flow to the area and help to stem the bleeding.

If you suspect that there is internal bleeding there is little that you can do out in the wild except try to make sure that the person gets medical attention as quickly as possible.

Broken Bones

Sometimes it will be obvious that a person has a broken bone because it has split through the skin. Sometimes it can be more difficult to diagnose. If a person has fallen from a height, has problems moving a part of their body, has heard a break, has swelling and bruising accompanied by intense pain or a deformed limb then it is extremely likely that they have broken a bone.

There is very little that can be done for a fracture in the wild except for splinting it to prevent further damage. You can use almost anything to make a splint; sticks and branches are excellent and can be tied to the limb with bandages or clothing. In extremis you can splint an arm against the body or a leg against the other leg.

If you suspect a neck fracture the person should not be moved, he should be kept warm and help brought to him. If you suspect a skull fracture try not to move him but do allow him to recline in a comfortable position, if he is capable of independent movement, and keep him warm until help arrives.

Burns

If someone is suffering from burns you will need to cool the area down as quickly as possible. Do this by irrigating with water for at least 10 minutes to half an hour. Once the heat is removed it needs to be dressed with dressings lying laterally not horizontally along the injury. This will allow for swelling. A burn dressing is, of course, the most appropriate item to use but if you have nothing else even clean clothing will do. While you are irrigating the wound you can sterilize cloths by boiling them. Do allow them to cool before applying them to the wound, however, or you will make the situation worse. Do not, whatever you do, touch the wound.

Hypothermia

Hypothermia can be fatal and is caused by the body losing too much heat. It is a danger if you get wet or you find yourself outdoors without the proper clothing. Watch out for the typical symptoms which can be very subtle in the early stages and include:

Change in behavior;

Pale skin and uncontrolled shivering;

Body cold to the touch;

Slowing heartbeat and shallow breathing;

Weakness and extreme tiredness;

Collapse and unconsciousness.

Someone with extreme hypothermia may not realize that they need help and may resist your efforts to render assistance. The best thing to do is to get them under cover as soon as possible. If their clothes are wet change them into dry garments as soon as possible and get them in a warm sleeping bag if available. If you do not have a sleeping bag or shelter available cover them with leaf litter. If you do not have dry clothing available leave the wet clothes on but cover with as much insulation as possible. Lay them on their side and get another person to lie back to back with them, if possible cover both. This is the most effective method of body to body heat transfer.

Over-heating

In the warmer months overheating is as much of a danger as hypothermia. If you are very active in the heat it is imperative to drink enough water to replace that which you lose through sweat. If you think that you may not have enough water to keep you hydrated, you should take steps to cut down on any unnecessary activity.

If you think you are starting to suffer from overheating you should cover your head and body with light material and sit in the shade. If possible wet your hat to help cool your head and drink water in small sips. This helps your body absorb as much as possible.

Best Practices & Common Mistakes

We have summarized some of the key pieces of advice from the book here in this handy reference.

Do’s

Research your destination

If you are planning a trip make sure that you know as much as possible about the area you are going to. Look at guidebooks, buy as high spec maps as you can afford and speak to local guides and experts.

Carry the right equipment

Even if you are going out for a day hike you should make sure that you have the right equipment to keep you safe and warm and able to get to safety in the event of an emergency.

Keep a first aid certification current

Even if you are not intending to go for long hikes in the wild or be involved in any risky activities it is good practice to keep a current knowledge of first aid techniques. You never know when they will come in handy.

Don’ts

Forget to register your trip

Always make sure that someone knows when you are planning to leave and return and, for longer trips, details of your route. This means that they can call the emergency services if you do not return at the right time.

Panic

If things go wrong it is normal (and even healthy) to get scared. What you should not do is panic. Accept that fear is normal and give yourself time to make a plan to deal with the situation then execute that plan.

Give chest compressions to someone with a pulse

If you are in any doubt whether someone to whom you are giving CPR has a pulse you should avoid giving them. Chest compressions on someone who has a pulse can be dangerous and will do more harm than good.

Conclusion

So, there you have it – the priorities of wilderness survival, with advice to stave off the killers of exposure, dehydration and hypothermia, with a description of some of the quite simple tools which could help you immeasurably if you found yourself unexpectedly far from assistance. The best way to survive is to assemble a toolkit of essential items such as a cutting blade or axe, a waterproof tarp and bedroll, some simple medications and dressings, and the right clothes for the environment you have chosen to travel in. However, what we cannot provide here is experience in such environments, which can only come from challenging yourself in small but incremental steps in your chosen locality. Of course, no book of this kind could prepare you for every eventuality in every environment; the range of flora and fauna, landscape and rock type across the globe is bewildering before we even touch on how people act, use and live in those environments. 

A positive mental attitude in the face of physical or mental challenges cannot be taught, but it can be fostered and developed. Some people have survived situations against all odds whilst others have laid down and died in situations which may have seemed bleak at first glance but were actually entirely survivable. Perhaps more importantly than anything else, you must have the will to keep going and not let your circumstances beat you. Learning to cope in survival situations engenders confidence and success in such situations can change an individual’s life for the better, having positive benefits back home in everyday circumstances for decades to come. The ability to compartmentalize rather than be overwhelmed by the difficulties in the totality is a vital survival skill, and taking each issue in turn in order of greatest priority and focusing on the immediate task at hand is vital. This focus can almost to the exclusion of others, but not totally; your mind must watch your environment for approaching storms or sunset to enable you to plan to finish your tasks whilst you can. And as with many survival skills, they can be real life skills as well.

Finally, although risk is an essential part of the wilderness, it is important not to place yourself in harm’s way unnecessarily. Don’t be scared to admit something is beyond you: bravery is not the absence of fear, but its mastery, and fear of failure can be a negative factor which places people in locations far beyond their ability. Gain experience by working with others such as guides and leaders with experience of that environment before forging off alone. Push your limits by all means, but not so far that you have no way to cope. It its purest form, survival is all about your own ability to prevent yourself becoming a victim.

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Table of Contents

Introduction

Chapter One: Preparation and Equipment

Planning Your Trip to the Wild

Key Equipment You Must Have

Chapter Two: Water and Food

Water

Food

Chapter Three: Shelter

The Right Shelter

Emergency Shelter

Keeping Warm

Chapter Four: Navigation and Safety

Navigation

What to Do When You are Lost.

Dealing with Injury

Chapter Five: First Aid

First Aid Preparation

Best Practices & Common Mistakes

Conclusion